Hastelloy C-276 (UNS N10276) - Aloyi wa Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum wotsutsa dzimbiri padziko lonse lapansi

Kufotokozera Kwachidule:

Hastelloy C-276 (UNS N10276 /W.Nr. 2.4819 / NS334) ndi aloyi ya nickel-chromium-molybdenum yokhala ndi tungsten yowonjezera, yomwe imadziwika kwambiri ngati aloyi yolimbana ndi dzimbiri. Womic Steel imapereka Hastelloy C-276 m'njira zosiyanasiyana kuphatikizapo chitoliro chosasunthika, chitoliro cholumikizidwa, bala lachitsulo, mbale yachitsulo, coil yachitsulo, strip, flanges, fittings, forgings, waya, ndi ma valve opangira mankhwala, petrochemical, flue gas desulfurization, marine, nuclear waste treatment, ndi ma pharmaceutical purposes.


Tsatanetsatane wa Zamalonda

Ma tag a Zamalonda

Chidule cha Zamalonda

Hastelloy C-276 ndi aloyi yogwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri yolimbana ndi dzimbiri yomwe ilipo masiku ano. Kaboni ndi silikoni yake yochepa kwambiri imapereka kukana kwakukulu ku dzimbiri, dzimbiri la m'ming'alu, ndi kusweka kwa dzimbiri m'malo ovuta. Aloyiyo imalimbana kwambiri ndi mpweya wonyowa wa chlorine, hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide, ndi ma chloride oxidizing. Imagwira ntchito bwino mu sulfuric, hydrochloric, ndi phosphoric acid pa kutentha kwakukulu. Mosiyana ndi aloyi ena ambiri olimbana ndi dzimbiri, Hastelloy C-276 imasunga kukana kwake dzimbiri ngakhale mutakhala ndi welded, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti ikhale yoyenera kugwiritsa ntchito zida zofunika kwambiri zopangira mankhwala komwe kumafunika welded. Aloyiyo ili ndi tungsten (3.0-4.5%) yomwe imapereka kukana kwina ku dzimbiri komwe kumapezeka m'malo ovuta komanso imathandizira magwiridwe antchito onse m'malo ovuta.

Makhalidwe ofunikira ndi awa:

  • Kukana dzimbiri konsekonsem'ma media osiyanasiyana olimbikitsa
  • Kukana kwakukulu ku dzimbiri la dzenje ndi mng'alu
  • Kukana kwambiri kupsinjika ndi dzimbiri
  • Kukana kwambiri mpweya wonyowa wa chlorinendi ma chloride oxidizing
  • Kukana kwa sulfuric, hydrochloric, ndi phosphoric acids
  • Imasunga kukana dzimbiri mu mkhalidwe wolukidwa
  • Mpweya wochepa ndi silikonikuti pakhale bata

Kapangidwe ka Mankhwala

Chinthu Zomwe zili mkati (%) Udindo
Nikeli (Ni) Kulinganiza Chigawo cha maziko, chimapereka kukana dzimbiri
Chromium (Cr) 14.5 – 16.5 Kukana kwa okosijeni, kumapereka kukana kwa dzimbiri m'malo opangitsa okosijeni kukhala oxidizing
Molybdenum (Mo) 15.0 – 17.0 Kukana dzimbiri koyambira ndi kukana kwa mng'alu, kukana asidi
Tungsten (W) 3.0 – 4.5 Kukana dzimbiri komwe kumapezeka m'deralo, kukana asidi
Chitsulo (Fe) 4.0 – 7.0 Kapangidwe ka nyumba, kuchepetsa ndalama
Cobalt (Co) ≤ 2.5 Chinthu chotsalira, cholamulidwa kuti chigwiritsidwe ntchito pa nyukiliya
Kaboni (C) ≤ 0.010 Mpweya wotsika kwambiri umalepheretsa kukhudzidwa ndi dzimbiri ndipo umateteza kukana dzimbiri
Silikoni (Si) ≤ 0.08 Deoxidizer, yotsika kwambiri polimbana ndi dzimbiri
Manganese (Mn) ≤ 1.0 Chotsitsa mpweya
Vanadium (V) ≤ 0.35 Kuyeretsa tirigu
Phosphorus (P) ≤ 0.030 Kusayera, kolamulidwa mwamphamvu
Sulfure (S) ≤ 0.030 Kusayera, kolamulidwa mwamphamvu

 

Katundu wa Makina

Katundu wa Kutentha kwa Chipinda (Wowonjezeredwa)

Katundu Kufunika kwa ASTM Zomwe Zachitika Kawirikawiri
Kulimba kwamakokedwe ≥ 690 MPa (100 ksi) 690 – 860 MPa
Mphamvu Yopereka (0.2% Kuchotsera) ≥ 283 MPa (41 ksi) 283 – 350 MPa
Kutalikitsa ≥ 40% 40 – 55%
Kuuma ≤ 100 HRB 85 - 95 HRB
Kuchulukana 8.89 g/cm³  
Malo Osungunula 1325 – 1370°C  
Kutentha kwa mpweya pa 20°C 10.2 W/m·K  
Kuchuluka kwa Kutentha (20-100°C) 11.0 × 10⁻⁶/°C  
Modulus Yotanuka 208 GPa  
Kutha kwa Maginito Yopanda maginito  

Katundu wa Makina Otentha Kwambiri

Kutentha °C Mphamvu Yokoka (MPa) Mphamvu Yotulutsa (MPa)
20 690 – 860 283 – 350
100 645 260
200 610 240
300 580 220
400 540 210
500 500 200
600 460 190

 

Ubwino Waukulu wa Hastelloy C-276

Kukana Kudzikundikira Kwapadziko Lonse– Hastelloy C-276 imadziwika kuti ndi aloyi yolimba kwambiri yolimbana ndi dzimbiri yomwe ilipo masiku ano. Imapereka kukana bwino kwambiri ku ma asidi ochulukitsa okosijeni ndi ochepetsa okosijeni, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti ikhale yoyenera kugwiritsidwa ntchito komwe njira yogwirira ntchito ingasiyane pakati pa oxidizing ndi ochepetsa okosijeni. Aloyi imagwira ntchito modalirika mu sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, nitric acid, ndi ma organic acid osiyanasiyana.

Kukana Kwambiri Kudzikundikira ndi Kukana Kudzikundikira kwa Mipata– Kuchuluka kwa molybdenum (15-17%) kumapereka kukana kwakukulu ku dzimbiri la dzenje ndi ming'alu m'malo okhala ndi chloride. Chitsulochi sichimakhudzidwa ndi dzimbiri la dzenje m'madzi a m'nyanja ndi zinthu zina zamphamvu za chloride. Kukana kwake ku dzimbiri ndikwabwino kwambiri kuposa chitsulo chosapanga dzimbiri cha 316L ndi zinthu zina zambiri zopangidwa ndi nickel.

Kukana Kwambiri Kupsinjika ndi Dzimbiri– Hastelloy C-276 imalimbana bwino ndi kusweka kwa dzimbiri komwe kumabwera chifukwa cha chloride. Chitsulochi chimakhala chotetezeka ku SCC m'malo omwe zitsulo zosapanga dzimbiri za austenitic zimalephera kugwira ntchito. Izi zimapangitsa kuti chigwiritsidwe ntchito kwambiri m'mafakitale a m'nyanja, mankhwala, ndi petrochemical.

Kutha Kuwotcherera ndi Kukana Kudzimbiri Pambuyo Powotcherera– Mosiyana ndi ma alloy ambiri osagwira dzimbiri, Hastelloy C-276 imasunga kukana kwake dzimbiri mu mkhalidwe wolumidwa. Alloy sifunikira chithandizo cha kutentha pambuyo pa weld kuti ibwezeretse kukana dzimbiri. Kukana kwake kuwola kwa weld kumapangitsa kuti ikhale yoyenera pazida zovuta zopangidwa m'mafakitale opangira mankhwala ndi petrochemical.

Kukana Mpweya Wonyowa wa Chlorine– Hastelloy C-276 imalimbana kwambiri ndi mpweya wonyowa wa chlorine, hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide, ndi ma chloride okosijeni. Alloy iyi imagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri munjira zokhudzana ndi mankhwala okhala ndi chlorine ndi chlorine pomwe zinthu zina zambiri zimalephera kugwira ntchito mwachangu.

Kukana Sulfure ndi Phosphoric Acids– Chitsulochi chimasonyeza kukana bwino kwambiri ku sulfuric acid pamlingo wosiyanasiyana pa kutentha kwapakati. Chimalimbananso ndi phosphoric acid, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti chikhale choyenera kupanga feteleza wa phosphate ndi ntchito zina za phosphoric acid.

Mphamvu Yabwino Yotentha Kwambiri– Hastelloy C-276 imasunga mphamvu zothandiza zamakanika kutentha kwambiri. Chitsulochi chimasungabe kukana dzimbiri komanso kapangidwe kake m'malo otentha kwambiri, ndi kukana kwabwino kwa kukwawa mpaka 400°C.

Kutsatira NACE MR0175 / ISO 15156– Hastelloy C-276 ndi yoyenera kugwiritsidwa ntchito mumakampani opanga mafuta ndi gasi, yolimbana ndi sulfide stress cracking (SSC) ndi hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) m'malo okhala ndi H₂S.

Mafomu Opezeka a Zogulitsa kuchokera ku Womic Steel

Chitoliro Chopanda Msoko & Chitoliro Chopanda Msoko

  • Chidutswa cha Kunja:6mm – 300mm
  • Kukhuthala kwa Khoma:1mm - 30mm
  • Utali:Mpaka 12m
  • Miyezo:ASTM B622, ASTM B829, ASME SB-622
  • Mapulogalamu:Machubu osinthira kutentha, mapaipi opangira mankhwala, machitidwe ogwiritsira ntchito asidi, ma reactor a mankhwala
  • Mawu Ofunika:Chitoliro chopanda msoko cha Hastelloy C-276, chubu cha UNS N10276, chitoliro cha 2.4819, chubu chopanda msoko cha alloy C-276

Chitoliro Chopangidwa ndi Welded

  • Chidutswa cha Kunja:50mm – 1200mm
  • Kukhuthala kwa Khoma:1.0mm – 25mm
  • Miyezo:ASTM B619, ASTM B626, ASME SB-619, ASME SB-626
  • Mapulogalamu:Mapaipi akuluakulu opangidwa ndi m'mimba mwake, makina ochotsera mpweya woipa, ma reactor a mankhwala
  • Mawu Ofunika:Chitoliro cholumikizidwa cha Hastelloy C-276, chitoliro cha alloy C-276 ERW, chitoliro chachikulu cha nickel

Chitsulo Chopingasa (Chozungulira, Chozungulira, Chosalala, Chozungulira)

  • M'mimba mwake:6mm – 300mm
  • Pamwamba:Yotenthedwa, Yowala (yozizira), Yophwanyika, Yozungulira
  • Miyezo:ASTM B574, ASME SB-574
  • Mapulogalamu:Ma tsinde a ma valve, zomangira, shafts, mapampu, makina omangira, zolumikizira
  • Mawu Ofunika:Hastelloy C-276 round bar, UNS N10276 bar stock, nickel alloy bar

Chitsulo ndi Mapepala

  • Kukhuthala:1mm – 100mm
  • M'lifupi:Mpaka 2500mm
  • Miyezo:ASTM B575, ASME SB-575
  • Mapulogalamu:Zipolopolo za zombo, mbale zosinthira kutentha, zigawo za kapangidwe kake, malo opanda flange, zophimba za thanki ya mankhwala
  • Mawu Ofunika:Mbale ya Hastelloy C-276, pepala la aloyi la C-276, mbale ya N10276

Chitsulo Chokulungira ndi Mzere wa Chitsulo

  • Kukhuthala:0.5mm – 6.0mm
  • M'lifupi:10mm – 1500mm
  • Miyezo:ASTM B575
  • Mapulogalamu:Zopangira zopangidwa, ma bellows, ma expansion joints, stampings, machubu opyapyala
  • Mawu Ofunika:Hastelloy C-276 coil, mzere wa aloyi wa nickel

Ma Flanges ndi Zopangira Mapaipi

  • Mitundu:Khosi Lolukidwa, Lotsetsereka, Losawoneka, Lolukidwa ndi Soketi, Lokhala ndi Ulusi, Lolumikizana ndi Lap
  • Kukula:1/2" – 48"
  • Kuyeza kwa Kupanikizika:Kalasi 150 - Kalasi 2500
  • Miyezo:ASTM B564, ASME SB-564, ASME B16.5, ASME B16.47
  • Zokongoletsera:Zigongono, Ma Tee, Zochepetsera, Zipewa, Mapeto a Stub, Zolumikizira
  • Mawu Ofunika:Ma flange a Hastelloy C-276, zolumikizira mapaipi a alloy C-276, UNS N10276 weld neck flange

Zopangira

  • Mitundu:Mphete, ma disk, ma shaft, matupi a ma valve, zigawo za pampu, ma geometries apadera
  • Kulemera:Mpaka 3,000kg pa chidutswa chilichonse
  • Miyezo:ASTM B564, ASME SB-564
  • Mawu Ofunika:Hastelloy C-276 forging, mphete ya alloy C-276, block yopangidwa

Ma Valves a Hastelloy C-276

  • Mitundu:Ma valve a mpira, Ma valve a pachipata, Ma valve a Globe, Ma valve owunikira, Ma valve a pulagi
  • Kukula:1/2" – 24"
  • Kuyeza kwa Kupanikizika:Kalasi 150 - Kalasi 2500
  • Kuchuluka kwa Kutentha:-196°C mpaka +400°C
  • Miyezo Yopangira Kapangidwe:API 608, API 6D, BS 6364, ASME B16.34
  • Malo okhala:Stellite yolimba, PCTFE (cryogenic), RPTFE, PEEK
  • Kuchitapo kanthu:Manja, Pneumatic, Magetsi
  • Mapulogalamu:Utumiki woopsa wa mankhwala, kusamalira asidi, ma reactor a mankhwala, utumiki wa chlorine wonyowa
  • Mawu Ofunika:Valavu ya mpira ya Hastelloy C-276, valavu ya chipata cha alloy C-276, valavu yolimbana ndi dzimbiri

Waya ndi Masipule

  • Waya m'mimba mwake:0.5mm – 12mm
  • Masika:Kupanga masika mwamakonda
  • Miyezo:ASTM B574
  • Mawu Ofunika:Waya wa Hastelloy C-276, masipiringi a aloyi a C-276, waya wa aloyi wa nickel

Hastelloy C-276 motsutsana ndi Inconel 625 motsutsana ndi Incoloy 825

Katundu Hastelloy C-276 Inconel 625 Incoloy 825
Zamkati mwa Nickel Kulinganiza ≥58% 38-46%
Zamkati mwa Chromium 14.5-16.5% 20-23% 19.5-23.5%
Zambiri za Molybdenum 15-17% 8-10% 2.5-3.5%
Zamkati mwa Tungsten 3-4.5% Palibe Palibe
Chitsulo Chokwanira 4-7% ≤5% ≥22%
Mtengo wa PREN ~67 ≥45 ~36
Kukana kwa asidi Wapamwamba Zabwino Zabwino kwambiri
Kukana kwa Klorini Yonyowa Zabwino kwambiri Zabwino Wocheperako
Kukana Kuponya Wapamwamba Zabwino kwambiri Zabwino
Kukana Madzi a M'nyanja Wapamwamba Wapamwamba Zabwino
Kutha kupotoka Zabwino kwambiri Zabwino kwambiri Zabwino kwambiri
Mtengo Wapamwamba kwambiri Pamwamba Wocheperako

Nthawi yoti musankhe Hastelloy C-276:Kugwiritsa ntchito komwe kumafuna kukana dzimbiri kwambiri m'malo ovuta kuphatikizapo mpweya wonyowa wa chlorine, mitsinje yosakanikirana ya asidi, ndi malo olumikizirana a chloride komwe ma alloy ena amalephera. Kukana dzimbiri kwapamwamba kwambiri kwa maenje ndi ming'alu kumapereka chifukwa chokwera mtengo.

Nthawi yosankha Inconel 625:Kugwiritsa ntchito komwe kumafuna kukana dzimbiri komanso mphamvu yotentha kwambiri. Kuli bwino kwambiri m'madzi a m'nyanja komanso m'malo opangitsa kuti oxygen ilowe m'madzi, komanso mphamvu yabwino kwambiri pa kutentha kokwera kuposa C-276.

Nthawi yosankha Incoloy 825:Kugwiritsa ntchito komwe kumafuna kukana dzimbiri bwino m'malo okhala ndi asidi pamtengo wotsika. Ndikwabwino kwambiri pa ntchito ya sulfuric ndi phosphoric acid, yoyenera ntchito ya sour, koma yolimba pang'ono kuposa C-276 kapena 625.

Kugwiritsa ntchito Hastelloy C-276

Kukonza Mankhwala– Hastelloy C-276 imagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri mu ma reactor, zosinthira kutentha, ma distillation columns, mapaipi, mapampu, ndi ma valve omwe amagwira ntchito ndi mankhwala amphamvu kuphatikizapo sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, chlorine compounds, ndi organic acids. Kukana dzimbiri kwa alloy kumapangitsa kuti ikhale yoyenera kugwiritsidwa ntchito komwe zinthu zowononga zimatha kusiyanasiyana kapena komwe chemistry siili yolamulidwa bwino.

Utumiki wa Chlorine Wonyowa– Chitsulochi ndi chinthu chomwe chimakondedwa kwambiri pokonza mpweya wa chlorine wonyowa, kuphatikizapo mafakitale otulutsa chlorine, makina owumitsa chlorine, kupanga chlorine dioxide, ndi kupanga hypochlorite. Kukana kwake ku chlorine wonyowa ndi mankhwala a chlorine sikungafanane ndi zipangizo zina zambiri.

Kuchotsa Mpweya wa Flue (FGD)– Hastelloy C-276 imagwiritsidwa ntchito mu makina a FGD m'mafakitale opangira magetsi opangidwa ndi malasha a nsanja zotsukira, ma ducts otenthetsera, zigawo za fan ya nthunzi yonyowa, ma agitators, ma baffles, ndi ma ducts a flue. Kukana kwa alloy ku acid condensate ndi malo okhala ndi chloride kumatsimikizira kuti ntchito yake ndi yayitali m'mafakitale ovuta awa.

Makampani Ogulitsa Zamkati ndi Mapepala- Chitsulochi chimagwiritsidwa ntchito mu zogaya zamkati, zida zoyeretsera, ndi makina obwezeretsa mankhwala komwe kumapezeka mankhwala amphamvu komanso kutentha kwambiri.

Kukonza Mankhwala ndi Chakudya– Hastelloy C-276 imagwiritsidwa ntchito mu ma reactor a mankhwala, ziwiya zophikira, ndi zida zopangira chakudya komwe kukana dzimbiri ndi kuyera kwa zinthu ndikofunikira kwambiri. Kukana kwake dzimbiri kumatsimikizira kuti mankhwala kapena zakudya sizikuipitsidwa.

Chithandizo cha Zinyalala za Nyukiliya- Chitsulochi chimagwiritsidwa ntchito pokonzanso zinyalala za nyukiliya komanso pokonza zinyalala za radioactive komwe kumafunika kukana nitric acid ndi malo ozungulira radiation.

Zam'madzi ndi Zapanyanja– Hastelloy C-276 imagwiritsidwa ntchito poika mapaipi a m'nyanja, zida za nsanja za m'mphepete mwa nyanja, ndi zida za pansi pa nyanja komwe kukana dzenje lochokera ku chloride ndi dzimbiri la m'ming'alu ndikofunikira.

Mafuta ndi Gasi- Chitsulochi chimagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga mpweya wowawasa, zida zogwirira ntchito, ndi njira zoyendera pansi pa nyanja zomwe zimafuna kukana ku H₂S, CO₂, ndi chloride corrosion. Kutsatira kwake NACE MR0175 / ISO 15156 kumatsimikizira magwiridwe antchito odalirika muutumiki wowawasa.

Miyezo ndi Mafotokozedwe

Fomu Yogulitsa Muyezo wa ASTM Muyezo wa ASME
Chitoliro/Chubu Chopanda Msoko ASTM B622, ASTM B829 ASME SB-622, SB-829
Chitoliro Chopangidwa ndi Welded ASTM B619, ASTM B626 ASME SB-619, SB-626
Malo Opalira/Ndodo ASTM B574 ASME SB-574
Mbale/Pepala/Mzere ASTM B575 ASME SB-575
Zopangira ASTM B564 ASME SB-564
Zokongoletsera ASTM B366 ASME SB-366
Kusankhidwa kwa UNS N10276  
Nambala ya Werkstoff 2.4819  
Kusankhidwa kwa DIN NiMo16Cr15W  
Chofanana ndi cha Chitchaina NS334  

 

Mafunso Ofunsidwa Kawirikawiri

Q: N’chifukwa chiyani Hastelloy C-276 imaonedwa ngati aloyi "yonse" yosagwira dzimbiri?

A: Hastelloy C-276 imapereka kukana kwakukulu ku ma asidi owonjezera ndi ochepetsa, mpweya wonyowa wa chlorine, ma chloride, ndi mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya zinthu zowononga. Kusinthasintha kwake m'malo osiyanasiyana owononga kumapangitsa kuti ikhale yoyenera kugwiritsidwa ntchito komwe njira yogwirira ntchito ingasiyane kapena komwe kuli ma asidi osakanikirana. Palibe aloyi ina yomwe imapereka kukana kwakukulu kwa dzimbiri koteroko.

Q: Kodi kusiyana pakati pa Hastelloy C-276 ndi Inconel 625 ndi kotani?

A: Hastelloy C-276 ili ndi molybdenum yochuluka (15-17% poyerekeza ndi 8-10%) ndipo ili ndi tungsten (3-4.5%), yomwe imapereka kukana dzimbiri kwabwino kwambiri, makamaka pochepetsa malo okhala ndi asidi. Inconel 625 ili ndi niobium yolimbitsa ndipo ili ndi mphamvu yabwino kwambiri kutentha kuposa C-276. Sankhani C-276 kuti mupewe dzimbiri kwambiri; sankhani 625 kuti mugwiritse ntchito zomwe zimafuna kukana dzimbiri komanso mphamvu yotentha kwambiri.

Q: Kodi Hastelloy C-276 imafuna kutentha pambuyo powotcherera?

A: Ayi. Chimodzi mwa ubwino waukulu wa Hastelloy C-276 ndikuti imasunga kukana kwake dzimbiri mu mkhalidwe wolumidwa. Kaboni yochepa ndi silikoni zomwe zili mu alloy zimatsimikizira kukana kuwola kwa weld ndi dzimbiri pakati pa granular popanda chithandizo cha kutentha pambuyo pa weld.

Q: Kodi Hastelloy C-276 ndi yoyenera kugwiritsidwa ntchito m'madzi a m'nyanja?

A: Inde. Hastelloy C-276 imalimbana kwambiri ndi dzimbiri la m'madzi a m'nyanja. Ndi yoyenera kugwiritsa ntchito mapaipi a m'nyanja, zida zapamtunda za m'nyanja, ndi zida za pansi pa nyanja komwe dzimbiri la chloride ndi vuto.

Q: Kodi Hastelloy C-276 ya ku China ndi yofanana bwanji ndi ya ku China?

A: Giredi yofanana ndi ya ku China ndi NS334 (耐蚀合金). Imadziwikanso ndi dzina lake la UNS N10276 ndi nambala ya Werkstoff 2.4819.

Q: Ndi mitundu iti ya zinthu zomwe zilipo za Hastelloy C-276?

A: Womic Steel imapereka Hastelloy C-276 mu chitoliro chopanda msoko, chitoliro cholumikizidwa, bala lachitsulo, mbale yachitsulo, cholumikizira chachitsulo, mzere, ma flange, zolumikizira mapaipi, zolumikizira, waya, ndi ma valve. Mafotokozedwe athunthu azinthu ndi kukula kwake zalembedwa mu gawo la kupezeka kwazinthu.

Lumikizanani ndi Womic Steel

Webusaiti: www.womicsteel.com

Imelo: sales@womicsteel.com

Foni / WhatsApp / WeChat:

Victor: +86 15575100681

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Womic Steel – Mnzanu wodalirika wa Hastelloy C-276 (UNS N10276) chitoliro chopanda msoko, chitoliro cholumikizidwa, bala lachitsulo, mbale yachitsulo, coil yachitsulo, ma flanges, zolumikizira, zopangira, ndi ma valve opangira mankhwala, ntchito yonyowa ya chlorine, kuchotsa mpweya woipa m'mafakitale, kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala, ndi zinyalala za nyukiliya padziko lonse lapansi. Kutsata kwathunthu, kutsatira malamulo a NACE MR0175, satifiketi ya gulu la magulu, ndi zikalata za EN 10204 Type 3.1/3.2 zilipo.